Academic writing conventions according to the American Psychological Association (APA) style of referencing: A paper analysis
Academic papers should fulfill certain requirements as regards “formal elements such us proficiency in language use, style, register and genre” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.9). In order to reach academic standards, the different text formats should follow specific and detailed conventions dictated by distinct referencing systems. Those systems enable authors to avoid plagiarism (the use of sources without acknowledging them) and “allow the reader to consult the original source” (Nielsen, 2007, p.5). American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), and Chicago Manual Style are some of the referencing system manuals which authors may follow, depending on the field of study they belong to. The present analysis seeks to examine Myles’ (2002) research paper on second language writing, adopting for that purpose the APA style of referencing.
According to Purdue Owl (2010), authors can use quotations, paraphrases or summaries to cite sources. Furthermore, different types of citing “add credibility to academic papers, (. . .) give examples of several points of view on a subject, [and] distance the author from the original [work] by quoting it to cue readers that the words are not [his] own” (Purdue Owl, 2010). Myles’ (2002) employs direct quotations, paraphrased in text-citations, and block quotations to soundly support her research.
Myles’ (2002) most frequent type of quotation is paraphrasing, adding at the end of every indirect quotation the author’s name and the year of publication between parenthesis following APA conventions: “Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of writing down on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end” (Omaggio Hadley, 1993). When Myles (2002) includes a quotation by two authors, she adds the ampersand signal between their names: “(. . .) (Kutz, Groden & Zamel, 1993, p.30)”, as suggested by APA. The frequent use of paraphrase format of quotations may
reveal the writer’s fruitful attempt to support her position in the topic discussed in her paper.
In addition to the inclusion of indirect quotations, Myles (2002) presents evidence for her research directly transcribing the authors’ words. The reader may contact Myles’ (2002) sources through the exact words without mediators, between Myles and the reader; thus, keeping the meaning of the whole phrase without altering it and correctly applying APA rules: "writing ability is more closely linked to fluency in and familiarity with the conventions of expository discourse" (Kogen 1986, p. 25). Another type of referencing that Myles (2002) employs in three parts of her work is block quotations. Purdue Owl (2010) refers to block quotations as direct statements which are longer than forty words, they should stand in a free block, omitting quotation marks, placing page numbers at the end, and indenting five spaces from the established margins. Although Myles (2002), does not indent the block quotation, she follows APA guidelines as regards the first three requirements mentioned above, for instance: “As Yau (1991) points out:
[A]lthough we should not cripple our students' interest in writing through undue stress or grammatical correctness, the influence of second language factors on writing performance is something we have to reckon with and not pretend that concentrating on the process would automatically resolve the difficulty caused by these factors. (p. 268)”
As shown above in the previous example, Myles (2002) asserts in including block quotations sparingly in her research, just to illustrate the source’s idea, and at the end of her paper to present a satisfactory conclusion.
Applying APA guidelines for omissions, Myles (2002) inserts them in certain direct quotation where she considers that the original source material is not relevant to her investigation: “students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116).” It must be noted that the use of ellipsis without parenthesis shows that a paragraph was taken out of the quotation. As regards insertions, which are marked by square brackets, they are mostly placed at the beginning of block quotation to indicate the change of a low case letter to an upper case one: “McLaughlin, transfer errors can occur because:
[L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and others do not. (1988, p. 50)”
Reporting verbs and introductory phrases are essential elements which are regulated by APA. The varied use of reporting verbs attempt to reflect the different positions an author may hold, Myles (2002), uses a wide range of verbs: argue, state, support, differentiate, criticize, observe, focus, analyze, propose, stress, advocate, point out, conclude and mention. Introductory phrases are correctly structured in Myles’ (2002) paper:
“Schumann (1998) argues that…”,
“Silva (1993) observes that..”
“The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on…” (as cited in Myles,2002,p.3)
Finally, in the reference section, Myles (2002) does not follow APA conventions accurately, for instance, the title is placed on the left margin and it should be written in the middle. Furthermore, in Myles’ reference list, the internet journal resource is not correctly structured, as can be illustrated in the following example:
“Plata, M. (1995). Success of Hispanic college students on a writing examination. Journal of Educational Issue of Language Minority Students [on-line serial], 15. Available: http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/miscpubs/jeilms/vol15/success.htm”
(as cited in Myles,2002, p.20)
As observed in the reference above, the phrase in square brackets, the word available, and the underlined linked internet resource do not correspond to APA convention style of referencing.
In the present analysis, Myles’ (2002) use of direct and indirect quotations, block quotations, omissions, reporting verbs and structure of the reference section have been explored. The details and examples generated, based on Myles’ (2002)
research paper on second language writing, show that her study follows APA requirements quite closely. Furthermore, it should be noted that the author possesses a remarkable handling of direct scientific sources, she is able to make connections between current theoretical perspectives on the topic she proposes and her academic view.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: the writing process and error analysis in student texts. TESL-EJ, 6 (2). Retrieved November 14, 2010, from http://www.cc.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej22/a1.html
Nielsen, L. (2007). Setting out references. How to reference using the American Psychological Association (APA) style of referencing 5th edition. Auckland: Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from Philson Library: http://www.library.auckland.ac.nz/subjects/med/pdfs/apa-guide.pdf
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010a). Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Retrieved September, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010b). Unit 3: Academic writing. Retrieved September, 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7392
Purdue OWL. (2010a). In – text citations: the basics. Retrieved September, 2010, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/
Purdue OWL. (2010b). Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing. Retrieved September, 2010, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/01/
lunes, 7 de febrero de 2011
From peripheral participation to professionalism
Peripheral participation and professionalism are relevant issues to consider in order to become active members in a certain discourse community. According to Lave and Wenger (1991), new participants’ position in a discourse community “[is] not central but [is] on the margins of the activity”(as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.14). Lave and Wenger (1991) also argue that as long as a member takes part in the development of knowledge, members hold a legitimate peripheral position. Thus, involvement in knowledge development as well as in academic issues would enable students and professionals to become legitimate members in a given discourse community.
As regards professionalism, Banfi (1997, cited in Pintos &Crimi, 2010) describes the necessary requirements to be considered a professional in a certain field. Professionals should “provide a social service, […] [professionals] should have had a long period of specialized training and be autonomous and involved in decision-making issues”(Banfi,1997,as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.28). Moreover, Wallace (1991) adds that professionals should “perform (…) socially useful tasks in a demonstrably competent manner” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, p.28).
From the concepts defined above, it should be said that peripheral participation and professionalism are indicative and necessary requirements for a membership in a discourse community. Those concepts are related and connected since they refer to the achievement of professional goals, professionals should aim at becoming legitimate participants through the development of new knowledge. In the case of teachers, they should seek to “play a central role in the development of research” (Banfi, 1997, as cited in Pintos & Crimi, p.29)
After this brief overview of the concepts of peripheral participation and professionalism provided in this paper, it should be stated that peripheral participation in a teaching discourse community means learning about the genres and conventions of academic writing. It can be concluded that becoming a professional means complying with the requirements of a professional reflective teacher who can work autonomously seeking for new developments in his / her specific filed.
References
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective teachers. Retrieved August 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
As regards professionalism, Banfi (1997, cited in Pintos &Crimi, 2010) describes the necessary requirements to be considered a professional in a certain field. Professionals should “provide a social service, […] [professionals] should have had a long period of specialized training and be autonomous and involved in decision-making issues”(Banfi,1997,as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.28). Moreover, Wallace (1991) adds that professionals should “perform (…) socially useful tasks in a demonstrably competent manner” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, p.28).
From the concepts defined above, it should be said that peripheral participation and professionalism are indicative and necessary requirements for a membership in a discourse community. Those concepts are related and connected since they refer to the achievement of professional goals, professionals should aim at becoming legitimate participants through the development of new knowledge. In the case of teachers, they should seek to “play a central role in the development of research” (Banfi, 1997, as cited in Pintos & Crimi, p.29)
After this brief overview of the concepts of peripheral participation and professionalism provided in this paper, it should be stated that peripheral participation in a teaching discourse community means learning about the genres and conventions of academic writing. It can be concluded that becoming a professional means complying with the requirements of a professional reflective teacher who can work autonomously seeking for new developments in his / her specific filed.
References
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective teachers. Retrieved August 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
sábado, 5 de febrero de 2011
New CAECE dictionary of academic terms
Academic writing
In order to introduce the New CAECE dictionary of academic terms, it is relevant to define what academic writing is. Academic writing may be defined as a skill that requires specific formal elements regarding style, register, and genre and also includes the use of provoking views, discussions and responses on the part of the reader and writer. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), academic writing “challenges students’ cognitive capacities” (p.9), therefore, learners should be able to construct knowledge through the exploration of new insights through writing in academic contexts.
For instance, Silva (1990) states that “academic writing should aim at helping to socialize the students into the academic context” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, p.11). As a consequence, students should become familiar with the format of academic texts, such as, book reports, outlines, summaries or journals among others.
Furthermore, academic writing has specific characteristics stated by Mac Donald (1994, as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010), which delimit its context and requirements, they are:
- Academic register
- Formal style
- Proficiency in language
- Ability to integrate information from other sources
- Ability to integrate types of academic genres
Morra de la Peña (1995) argues that teachers should make students aware of the different characteristics, and types of expository texts to diminish failure and the negative consequences of lack of knowledge and practice in writing academic texts (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010)
Given the definition and main characteristics of academic writing, it can be concluded that writing academically is a skill which requires the use of a specific formal style, register and genres. Thus, in order to become part of the academic community, it is of prime importance for learners to be able to build their knowledge based on the implementation of specific academic writing conventions.
References
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 3: Academic writing. Retrieved September 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7392
Advanced literacy and professional development
To understand the role of advanced literacy in professional development, the following section of the New CAECE dictionary of academic terms aims to provide an understanding of what advanced literacy is in academic contexts. The term advanced literacy can be defined as the acquired ability to read and write in academic settings. As a consequence, advanced literacy is a useful tool that may help students and professionals to develop formal skills necessary to interact academically. As posed by Schleppegrell and Colombi (2002), advanced literacy is the process of creating and exploring meaning, thus, critical thinking skills play a major role in the development of advanced literacy (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010).
The term advanced literacy has come to be applied in academic contexts where the formal instruction of English is provided. For instance, the term advanced literacy may be found in Schleppegrell and Colombi (2002), who state that teachers should “enable [students] to contribute to the evolution of knowledge by …. challenging current practices and developing new ways of using language in advanced literacy contexts”(as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.35).
With reference to the current use of the term, it is used in academic settings to address to the requirements that students and professionals have to fulfill in order to be able to have access to contexts where academic writings are constructed. Formal requirements as well as internal thinking processes are concepts that are closely attached to the term advanced literacy. As argued by Pintos and Crimi (2010), “in order to develop advanced literacy, students should go beyond the basics; they should construct arguments and critique theories.”(p.35)
This brief overview of the term advanced literacy, shows that in order to take part in academic settings, participants should be able to acquire knowledge of formal requirements, and be able to interpret, construct and reconstruct meaning. Schleppegrell and Colombi (2002, as cited in Pintos & Crimi 2010), maintain that participants need to go beyond their current level of expertise to have “…..access, power and opportunity in today’s world”, particularly in academic contexts.
References
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective teachers. Retrieved August 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
In order to introduce the New CAECE dictionary of academic terms, it is relevant to define what academic writing is. Academic writing may be defined as a skill that requires specific formal elements regarding style, register, and genre and also includes the use of provoking views, discussions and responses on the part of the reader and writer. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010), academic writing “challenges students’ cognitive capacities” (p.9), therefore, learners should be able to construct knowledge through the exploration of new insights through writing in academic contexts.
For instance, Silva (1990) states that “academic writing should aim at helping to socialize the students into the academic context” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, p.11). As a consequence, students should become familiar with the format of academic texts, such as, book reports, outlines, summaries or journals among others.
Furthermore, academic writing has specific characteristics stated by Mac Donald (1994, as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010), which delimit its context and requirements, they are:
- Academic register
- Formal style
- Proficiency in language
- Ability to integrate information from other sources
- Ability to integrate types of academic genres
Morra de la Peña (1995) argues that teachers should make students aware of the different characteristics, and types of expository texts to diminish failure and the negative consequences of lack of knowledge and practice in writing academic texts (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010)
Given the definition and main characteristics of academic writing, it can be concluded that writing academically is a skill which requires the use of a specific formal style, register and genres. Thus, in order to become part of the academic community, it is of prime importance for learners to be able to build their knowledge based on the implementation of specific academic writing conventions.
References
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 3: Academic writing. Retrieved September 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7392
Advanced literacy and professional development
To understand the role of advanced literacy in professional development, the following section of the New CAECE dictionary of academic terms aims to provide an understanding of what advanced literacy is in academic contexts. The term advanced literacy can be defined as the acquired ability to read and write in academic settings. As a consequence, advanced literacy is a useful tool that may help students and professionals to develop formal skills necessary to interact academically. As posed by Schleppegrell and Colombi (2002), advanced literacy is the process of creating and exploring meaning, thus, critical thinking skills play a major role in the development of advanced literacy (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010).
The term advanced literacy has come to be applied in academic contexts where the formal instruction of English is provided. For instance, the term advanced literacy may be found in Schleppegrell and Colombi (2002), who state that teachers should “enable [students] to contribute to the evolution of knowledge by …. challenging current practices and developing new ways of using language in advanced literacy contexts”(as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.35).
With reference to the current use of the term, it is used in academic settings to address to the requirements that students and professionals have to fulfill in order to be able to have access to contexts where academic writings are constructed. Formal requirements as well as internal thinking processes are concepts that are closely attached to the term advanced literacy. As argued by Pintos and Crimi (2010), “in order to develop advanced literacy, students should go beyond the basics; they should construct arguments and critique theories.”(p.35)
This brief overview of the term advanced literacy, shows that in order to take part in academic settings, participants should be able to acquire knowledge of formal requirements, and be able to interpret, construct and reconstruct meaning. Schleppegrell and Colombi (2002, as cited in Pintos & Crimi 2010), maintain that participants need to go beyond their current level of expertise to have “…..access, power and opportunity in today’s world”, particularly in academic contexts.
References
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective teachers. Retrieved August 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
miércoles, 2 de febrero de 2011
A critical incident description
Violence at school
The critical incident described in this report occurred in a technical school near my neighborhood where I have been working for the last three years. This school is situated in a marginal zone of the city characterized by a low-income socio-economic context. It took place in the 2nd year of the Basic Technical Cycle by the middle of June of 2010. This class was formed by seventeen students, five girls and twelve boys.
Most students from this class behaved appropriately; they participated in class and completed assigned activities; except for three students who misbehaved at that time. They bothered the other students, insulted and bullied them, interrupted when the teacher was introducing a new topic or explaining an activity students had to carry out. This problematic situation took place from March to the middle of June. Although I had talked to those students, and informed about this difficult situation to the director and students’ parents, they kept on behaving more and more violently. I had commented about that situation to my colleagues and they said that they had the same problem with those students.
By the middle of June, in one of my classes, while students were completing an assignment, Mauricio, Juan and Johnathan took a strip of crepe paper taken from a garland that decorated the classroom, and put it around the neck of Raúl so that he could not move. Mauricio, Juan and Johnathan almost caused asphyxia to Raúl. That was a really shocking situation in which I did not know what to do, I called the invigilator and tried to help Raúl to recover. I really felt angry and helpless and sent the students to the director’s office and I went with them to explain what had happened. I asked the director to mediate and attempt to make these students change their attitude since I could not cope with their violent attitude in my classes.
The director’s response to this problem was telling students’ parents that they would have to take their sons out of the school if they did not change their behavior. After this incident, Mauricio and Juan changed school and Johnathan stayed provided that he improves his behavior.
Johnathan started participating, paying attention to teacher explanations, and completing activities, he showed that he could improve and behave properly. Since then, I try to encourage him, telling him that he can improve, that he can be a better person and student. And I learned that difficult students can change if they decide to do so, and that we as teachers should foster self-confidence in our students.
The critical incident described in this report occurred in a technical school near my neighborhood where I have been working for the last three years. This school is situated in a marginal zone of the city characterized by a low-income socio-economic context. It took place in the 2nd year of the Basic Technical Cycle by the middle of June of 2010. This class was formed by seventeen students, five girls and twelve boys.
Most students from this class behaved appropriately; they participated in class and completed assigned activities; except for three students who misbehaved at that time. They bothered the other students, insulted and bullied them, interrupted when the teacher was introducing a new topic or explaining an activity students had to carry out. This problematic situation took place from March to the middle of June. Although I had talked to those students, and informed about this difficult situation to the director and students’ parents, they kept on behaving more and more violently. I had commented about that situation to my colleagues and they said that they had the same problem with those students.
By the middle of June, in one of my classes, while students were completing an assignment, Mauricio, Juan and Johnathan took a strip of crepe paper taken from a garland that decorated the classroom, and put it around the neck of Raúl so that he could not move. Mauricio, Juan and Johnathan almost caused asphyxia to Raúl. That was a really shocking situation in which I did not know what to do, I called the invigilator and tried to help Raúl to recover. I really felt angry and helpless and sent the students to the director’s office and I went with them to explain what had happened. I asked the director to mediate and attempt to make these students change their attitude since I could not cope with their violent attitude in my classes.
The director’s response to this problem was telling students’ parents that they would have to take their sons out of the school if they did not change their behavior. After this incident, Mauricio and Juan changed school and Johnathan stayed provided that he improves his behavior.
Johnathan started participating, paying attention to teacher explanations, and completing activities, he showed that he could improve and behave properly. Since then, I try to encourage him, telling him that he can improve, that he can be a better person and student. And I learned that difficult students can change if they decide to do so, and that we as teachers should foster self-confidence in our students.
Critical incidents in teacher education
Critical incidents: a valuable teacher strategy
Critical incidents or unexpected situations are handled and solved according to teachers’ strategies and previous experience. Therefore, the analysis and reflection of critical incidents are useful tools which may provide insights and possible solutions to difficult situations that arise in everyday classroom contexts. Moreover, research by Fernández González, Elórtegui Escartín and Medina Perez (2003), supports that not only should teachers know about the subject but they also should be able to observe and reflect on classroom problematic situations.
According to González et al. (2003), teachers should assume two different roles: as educators and learners. They should learn through their own experiences and reflect on them as means of professional growth. As stated by Monereo (1999, as cited in González et al., 2003, p.103) “…se tendrá que ofrecer a los profesores instrumentos de interpretación y análisis de la situación en la que se desarrolla su actividad…enriqueciendo y ampliando su formación en la interacción con la realidad cotidiana de la práctica profesional”. What are those strategies which may help teachers analyze and reflect on those situations? To what extent are they significant resources?
The analysis of critical incidents makes teachers return to those crucial situations that they have to face in classroom contexts; I consider that it is of high importance to learn to deal with this relevant pedagogical tool. As regards my own experience, I frequently have to face and solve those difficult moments at the schools I work, where contexts vary culturally and economically. Applying the critical incident technique would be of considerable significance to learn how to cope with critical incidents; and eventually avoid unreflective decisions due to pressure or inexperience.
References
Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 2010, from
http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417
Critical incidents or unexpected situations are handled and solved according to teachers’ strategies and previous experience. Therefore, the analysis and reflection of critical incidents are useful tools which may provide insights and possible solutions to difficult situations that arise in everyday classroom contexts. Moreover, research by Fernández González, Elórtegui Escartín and Medina Perez (2003), supports that not only should teachers know about the subject but they also should be able to observe and reflect on classroom problematic situations.
According to González et al. (2003), teachers should assume two different roles: as educators and learners. They should learn through their own experiences and reflect on them as means of professional growth. As stated by Monereo (1999, as cited in González et al., 2003, p.103) “…se tendrá que ofrecer a los profesores instrumentos de interpretación y análisis de la situación en la que se desarrolla su actividad…enriqueciendo y ampliando su formación en la interacción con la realidad cotidiana de la práctica profesional”. What are those strategies which may help teachers analyze and reflect on those situations? To what extent are they significant resources?
The analysis of critical incidents makes teachers return to those crucial situations that they have to face in classroom contexts; I consider that it is of high importance to learn to deal with this relevant pedagogical tool. As regards my own experience, I frequently have to face and solve those difficult moments at the schools I work, where contexts vary culturally and economically. Applying the critical incident technique would be of considerable significance to learn how to cope with critical incidents; and eventually avoid unreflective decisions due to pressure or inexperience.
References
Fernandez González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17- 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September 2010, from
http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417
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